Roman army public speaking

[inkstain]

Great site.
Can anyone tell me if late Roman commanders addressed large military assemblies using megaphones or other amplification devices? For example, in the fourth century, how would Constantius and Vetranio have made themselves heard when addressing their troops when Vetranio abdicated his claim to the throne?

[Nathan Ross]

Pre-electric amplification, even a speaking trumpet wouldn't carry the voice that far - it would look fairly undignified too! We don't, in any case, have any evidence of anyone using anything like that.

In the earlier empire, generals and emperors were senators, trained at public speaking - probably in the way that theatre actors are trained today. Oratory was a skill, and involved using gesture and intonation to convey meaning even beyond the limits of hearing.

When you read the accounts of Caesar, or Julian much later, most recorded speeches are actually given to small bodies of men or even to individual soldiers. The longer 'pre-battle' speeches in Tacitus etc are most probably artificial constructs, but are perhaps based on these sort of smaller-scale talks.

In the case of big imperial addresses, a lot of what was going on was probably expressed visually, by gesture or by symbolism. The troops may well have known in advance what was going to happen, and could watch for various pre-understood signs, like in a sort of mime drama. Think of Diocletian's abdication speech - the important moment was when he placed his own purple cloak around the shoulders of Galerius, and then the new Caesars were similarly honoured. That was a gesture that even distant observers could see and understand.

Might the increasing formality and grandeur of the later empire - the vividly coloured and decorated clothes, the statue-like arrangement of figures, the orbs and sceptres and diadems - have initially been a way for emperors who had risen from the ranks, untrained in public address and verbal rhetoric, to communicate their power in public by visual means?

[Valerian Pertinax]

I would say that the symbolism of the scepter, diadem, purple cloak, etc would certainly play a communicative role for people too far away to hear an "inauguration" speech. With that in mind, I've also hypothesized that the increasing pageantry of Imperial coronations were a way of compensating, so to speak, for the increasingly treacherous ways that an emperor was usually coming to power. To me, a field general who was just promoted by violently offing his old boss would need all the visual and symbolic help he could get to "sell" himself as the rightful emperor.

Regarding the use of pomp and grandeur to compensate for lack of oratorical skills: plausible, but in my opinion probably not the only reason. We have tales of Boudicca and Spartacus giving rousing pre-battle speeches. (Although in fairness we hear of the latter slaying his horse to indicate solidarity with his men, a powerful gesture even for those outside of earshot). To my knowledge neither of these leaders had any formal oratorical training.

Here my knowledge breaks down a bit: do we have any evidence of a late roman emperor giving a coronation speech? If we do, lack of oratorical training wasn't a roadblock to an emperor addressing his subjects. If not, it seems plausible to me that he would deliberately refrain from speaking to convey how "above" he was his subjects to even communicate to them.

[Theodosius the Great]

Early in the TV mini-series "Masada" Flavius Silva has his centurions read his farewell address to the troops. This seems somewhat more practical, IMO. Maybe the tribunes could've helped deliver speeches as well. That'd be a good way to exercise their oratory skills.

~Theo

[Epictetus]

Lucius Verus had copies of his exhortations to the troops which he gave to Fronto because he was writing his history of the Parthian War. Perhaps they could have been passed out and read to the troops?

[Nathan Ross]

do we have any evidence of a late roman emperor giving a coronation speech?

Valentinian, after his selection as emperor in 364, gave a dawn speech to 'the whole army' on the parade ground at Nicaea. Ammianus (XXVI.2) says that he was 'hailed as Augustus with all applause' and 'made ready to address the audience in a prepared speech. But as he stretched out his arms to command a hearing, a deep murmur arose. The centuries and maniples began to heckle, and the whole body of cohorts obstinately insisted that a second emperor should be nominated... the cries which were heard did not come from a hired claque but expressed the unanimous wish of the whole throng."

However, the 'force and firmness' of Valentinian's address quells the disturbance, and the soldiers escort him to the palace. 'He was,' Ammianus says 'already an object of fear' - great line!

This is interesting because a) Valentinian is clearly doing the talking himself, and doing it at sufficient length to put down a threatened mutiny, and b) not only can the soldiers hear Valentinian, but he can hear them (or enough of them to work out the tide of their opinion). Presumably his 'forceful' speech was shouted at top volume - Valentinian was a rather fiery fellow - sufficient to make him an 'object of fear'...

Perhaps the problem is that we imagine Roman troops drawn up in neat rank and file for an imperial address, like modern soldiers on parade. But adlocutio scenes on columns etc tend to show soldiers in a random group around or before the tribunal. Perhaps in scenes like the one above (or Caesar's speech to the mutineers in 47BC), we might better picture the soldiers gathered in a mob before their commander, waving their hands, muttering and even heckling, the ones at the front passing the words of the speech to their comrades at the back, and so on - more like a riotous political rally than an orderly and formal audience?

[Thomas Aagaard]

If you tell them to stand close together a legion don't actually take up that much space. So nobody will be that fare away And if they are quiet I believe it would be possible for someone trained in "public speaking" to be heard. (offcause if they are in equipment the take up more space and armour makes sound so that would make it harder)

my experience is limited to talking to about 450 persons out door. That was not impossible and the main problem was that not everyone keep quiet... (something an order from the centurion would properly solve)

[markhebb]

I've just written a whole section on adlocutio from 235-395 for my thesis - finally being submitted in a couple of weeks - albeit a year late

No adlocutio scenes on coins or physical monuments show any such device. Also we have to be careful with the speeches recorded by the sources - they aren't accurate transcripts of what was said - although it is plausible to argue that the speeches themselves actually occurred when the sources say they did rather than believing they are mere literary devices.

[Epictetus]

Ammianus (XXVI.2) says... '...as he stretched out his arms to command a hearing, a deep murmur arose. The centuries and maniples began to heckle, and the whole body of cohorts obstinately insisted that a second emperor should be nominated... the cries which were heard did not come from a hired claque but expressed the unanimous wish of the whole throng."

... not only can the soldiers hear Valentinian, but he can hear them (or enough of them to work out the tide of their opinion).

...we might better picture the soldiers gathered in a mob before their commander, waving their hands, muttering and even heckling, the ones at the front passing the words of the speech to their comrades at the back, and so on - more like a riotous political rally than an orderly and formal audience?

There was a long history of groups in the circus or theatre chanting to the emperor or other official. It was part of the event, and (apparently) happened at every such gathering. Often these chants were thanks for the games, but they were also chances to express grievances. Some scholars have said this was the only method of free speech under the more dictatorial emperors. Do we have any evidence that this was common for the army to do likewise?

[inkstain]

I'm very grateful. I think the idea of claques may be important. For example, there are mixed reports of what happened when Constantia (Constantina) awarded Vetranio the diadem from Constantius on March 1, 350. One account says the Magnentius' men had already primed lower ranked officers with bribes, so the acclaim was mixed, both for Vetranio and also for Magnentius, leaving the political situation of these keys forces in a stalemate until that winter. If so, it's possible that the Illyrian legions present knew was was coming ahead of time? As you say, this would mean that visual signals played a larger role than words to such a large assembly.

[Nathan Ross]

I've just written a whole section on adlocutio from 235-395 for my thesis

Were you not writing something about the Herculiani and Joviani? Or was that somebody else? Apologies if so - and best of luck with your viva!

I think the idea of claques may be important.

Very important, I'd say, and seldom registered in the sources. Late imperial panegyrics in particular are full of the soldiers 'crying aloud with one voice' or whatever - which always reminds me of those 'spontaneous expressions of popular joy' common in various 20th century dictatorships! I was reading the sources on Constantine's acclamation recently, and there were surely quite a few things going on behind the scenes then too...

Possibly in the case of Valentinian, above, the emperor-selection was too rushed to get the soldiers properly 'on message' (as today's spin-people would have it), and an opposing faction managed to get in there first and prime the crowd. Only Valentinian's own blistering performance on the podium carried the day.

[ValentinianVictrix]

I personally like this one, which shows how speeches can sometimes have totally unexpected consequences!!!
Its from Ammianus and concerns Constantius II.

‘Accordingly, having placed a rampart near Acimincum and erected a high mound in the manner of a tribunal, ships carrying some light-armed legionaries were ordered to patrol the channel of the river near the banks, with one Innocentius, a field-measurer, who had recommended the plan, in order that, if they should see the savages beginning disorder, they might attack them in the rear, when their attention was turned elsewhere. But although the Limigantes knew that these plans were being hastened, yet they stood with bared heads, as if composing nothing save entreaties, but meditating deep in their hearts quite other things than their attitude and their words suggested.
And when the emperor was seen on the high tribunal and was already preparing to deliver a most mild address, intending to speak to them as future obedient subjects, one of their number, struck with savage madness, hurling his shoe at the tribunal, shouted "Marha, marha" (which is their warcry), and the rude crowd following him suddenly raised a barbarian banner and with savage howls rushed upon the emperor himself. 11He, looking down from his high place and seeing everything filled with a mob running about with missiles, and death already imminent from their drawn swords and javelins, in the midst as he was of the enemy and of his own men, and with nothing to indicate whether he was a general or a common soldier, since there was no time for hesitation or delay mounted a swift horse and galloped off at full speed. However, a few of his attendants, while they were trying to keep off the savages, who poured upon them like a stream of fire, were either wounded to death or trampled down by the mere weight of those who rushed over them; and the royal seat with its golden cushion was seized without resistance.
But when presently it was heard that the emperor had all but been drawn into extreme peril and was not yet on safe ground, the soldiers considered it their first duty to aid him (for they thought him not yet free from danger of death); so, with greater confidence because of their contempt of the enemy, although the attack was so sudden that they were only partly armed, with a loud battlecry they plunged into the bands of the savages, who were regardless of their lives. And so eagerly did our forces rush forth in their desire to wipe out the disgrace by valour, at the same time venting their wrath on the treacherous foe, that they butchered everything in their way, trampling under foot without mercy the living, as well as those dying or dead; and before their hands were sated with slaughter of the savages, the dead lay piled in heaps. For the rebels were completely overthrown, some being slain, others fleeing in terror in all directions; and a part of them, who hoped to save their lives by vain entreaties, were cut down by repeated strokes. And after all had been killed and the trumpets were sounding the recall, some of our men also, though few, were found among the dead, either trampled under foot in the fierce attack or, when they resisted the fury of the enemy and exposed their unprotected sides, destroyed by the fatal course of destiny. But conspicuous above the rest was the death of Cella, tribune of the Targeteers, who at the beginning of the fight was first to rush into the thick of the Sarmatian forces.’

[markhebb]

Nathan,

Indeed I was - my thesis is on ways the emperor maintained the loyalty of the army 235-395 - so I cover a whole range of topics. Unfortunately, I had to drop my Chapter on bodyguards, but I'm looking to make it into a separate study down the road.

[markhebb]

I'm very grateful. I think the idea of claques may be important. For example, there are mixed reports of what happened when Constantia (Constantina) awarded Vetranio the diadem from Constantius on March 1, 350. One account says the Magnentius' men had already primed lower ranked officers with bribes, so the acclaim was mixed, both for Vetranio and also for Magnentius, leaving the political situation of these keys forces in a stalemate until that winter. If so, it's possible that the Illyrian legions present knew was was coming ahead of time? As you say, this would mean that visual signals played a larger role than words to such a large assembly.

Just to check - do you have an actual reference saying that Vetranio physically received a diadem...I was under the impression that Julian's accession was the first explicit description of a crowning?

[Nathan Ross]

my thesis is on ways the emperor maintained the loyalty of the army 235-395 - so I cover a whole range of topics.

Sounds interesting - you don't have anything about raising emperors on shields do you, by any chance?

;-)