Early Vexilla

[Sean Manning]

Where can I learn about the origins and early history of the Roman vexillum-type standards (a square flag suspended from a cross-piece attached to a pole)? I know of sources like tombstones and reliefs from the empire, but not much before then from Roman territory. Hellenistic armies used similar standards by the start of the 2nd century BCE and it would be interesting to know whether the Romans imitated them.

What I do know about Republican vexilla is:
- Vexillum is the diminutive of velum, a word for a stretched or dangling cloth. So presumably early vexilla incorporated a flag just like later ones did.
- Livy 8.8 refers to vexilla in his description of the “Camillian” army
- The Oxford Classical Dictionary says that vexilla were used by cavalry units from the Republican period onwards, and by legionary detachments during the empire

[antiochus]

What I do know about Republican vexilla is:
- Vexillum is the diminutive of velum, a word for a stretched or dangling cloth. So presumably early vexilla incorporated a flag just like later ones did.
- Livy 8.8 refers to vexilla in his description of the “Camillian” army
- The Oxford Classical Dictionary says that vexilla were used by cavalry units from the Republican period onwards, and by legionary detachments during the empire

Livy in Book 8 8 is describing an organisation of the legion, not a flag to follow. All legions have this organisation.

[Sean Manning]

What do you mean? Livy clearly mentions vexilla in his description of the army's organization and deployment. I have a working hypothesis which would work better if vexilla were adopted later but I'm looking for evidence.

At first the Romans used the large round shield called the clipeus, afterwards, when the soldiers received pay, the smaller oblong shield called the scutum was adopted. The phalanx formation, similar to the Macedonian of the earlier days, was abandoned in favour of the distribution into companies (manipuli); the rear portion being broken up into smaller divisions. The foremost line consisted of the hastati, formed into fifteen companies, drawn up at a short distance from each other. These were called the light-armed companies, as whilst one-third carried a long spear (hasta) and short iron javelins, the remainder carried shields. This front line consisted of youths in the first bloom of manhood just old enough for service. Behind them were stationed an equal number of companies, called principes, made up of men in the full vigour of life, all carrying shields and furnished with superior weapons. This body of thirty companies were called the antepilani. Behind them were the standards under which were stationed fifteen companies, which were divided into three sections called vexillae, the first section in each was called the pilus, and they consisted of 180 men to every standard (vexillum). The first vexillum was followed by the triarii, veterans of proved courage; the second by the rorarii, or "skirmishers," younger men and less distinguished; the third by the accensi, who were least to be depended upon, and were therefore placed in the rearmost line.

[antiochus]

What do you mean? Livy clearly mentions vexilla in his description of the army's organization and deployment. I have a working hypothesis which would work better if vexilla were adopted later but I'm looking for evidence.

My research shows that from the beginning of the maniple legion, each legion has a standardised vexillation organisation. This organisation is not ad hoc. The vexillation organisation is based on the senator command structure of the centuriate legion. Examples of vexillations in the Second Punic war are Neros troops sent to Spain in 207 BC, his troop selection for the march to the Meaturus, and Scipio in leaving 3000 men and 300 cavalry to guard his camp all confer to the vexillation organisation (no rounding). There are many examples in the primary sources of vexillations especially in Josephus, but here the vexillation organisation has changed.

[Sean Manning]

Ok, and by “vexillations” here you mean “detachments” right? Just like the term was used under the empire? So combined infantry and cavalry detachments called vexillationes are attested in the 3rd century BCE. That's helpful.

I'm still hoping someone has information on Republican vexilla as objects. I'll have a look at Bishop and Coulston's “Roman Military Equipment” to see if it has anything. An article by Michael Rostovtzeff from 1942 has a few more literary references.

[antiochus]

Ok, and by “vexillations” here you mean “detachments” right? Just like the term was used under the empire?

Yes a vexillation is a detachment, but I will add a detachment is not ad hoc. When Nero selects his best troops to go to the Metuarus he is not riding along the line pointing “you, you, the guy in the back, you over there,” he is selecting the best units and forming vexillations of a prescribed size and organisation. And with each vexillation, there is a vexillum.

So combined infantry and cavalry detachments called vexillationes are attested in the 3rd century BCE. That's helpful.

Very much so. I had numbers left over in the primary sources that I couldn’t quite understand what they were, but when I looked through my legion organisation diagrams for the period of the Republic, these numbers fitted for each period and legion reform. It was then that I realised there is an official and standardised vexillation organisation. I thought it was very exciting at the time as I now could detail the exact number and troops types Nero sent to Spain and took to the Metuarus.

I have in pdf format, the following: Vexillum and Victory by Rostoutzeff, The Eposode of the Roman Standards at Jerusalem, Camp Prefects and Vexillation Commanders.

If you want, email me at [email protected]