The Mule

[Mithras]

When I talk to the public, I talk about the conterbernium, the 8-man tent and the mule, explaining how the unit's gear was divided up and the heavy loads stuck on the mule. But I've been trying to track down the reference to this mule, its not in Vegetius or Josephus - where is it?

And 1 mule for 8 men, that's pretty good going isn't it? More than 600 mules for the legion's infantry, not counting all the pack animals for the cavalry feed, the extra rations, siege equipment and so on.

The phrase 'Marius' Mules' and the comment of Josephus 'there's not much difference between the [Roman] foot-soldier and a pack-mule' suggests that he is the mule and has replaced that animal.

[L C Cinna]

and how would you transport things like the pilum muralis, the tent and stuff like that. the legionary's equipment and luggage already weighs more than that of the average modern soldier. you need something to carry that stuff.

the thing I always wonder about is, where did the slaves sleep? outside of the camp? I mean the layouts for marching camps don't have any place for them (at least the ones I've seen so far).

[Mithras]

I don't know. I'm looking for answers, really. I'm trying to work out what level of support and length of 'tail' a given Roman unit would have based on its objectives. A 3-day patrol in the hills around the fort - I can see no tent, ration bags, cloaks, water. Full-scale move from one fort to another, or redeployment out of the province or to a major war - well, you take everything using mules, wagons, slaves, carry what you can yourself.

But anything in between? 2 week patrol beyond the Rhine? Perhaps a tarp tent/pup shelter improvised construction. Legionnary campaign into Caledonia?

Are the mules kept in stables in the forts ready for transport purposes, or out in the vicus? Are they procured by the camp prefect when a unit needs to be mobilized?

There are no definate answers. Perhaps I can find specific examples of specific instances in the ancient sources for each type of mission.

The subject of slaves is not something I've ever considered, but I guess you're right, there must have been alot of them. Where did they fit in the military hierarchy?

EDIT: And since I mentioned Josephus, what's with the leather strap and the chain? What happened to a 'good piece of rope' (to paraphrase Sam Gamgee).

[Antonius Lucretius]

If I recall, only one slave was allowed per contubernium in the infantry, so I suppose they slept outside the tent.
The cavalry is a different matter since it looks like each trooper had a groom and certainly several remounts when going places.
There is only one way to keep pack animals and horses when you're in the open country: picket them or put them in a pen.
It looks like the ready to ride horses were picketed nearby the cavalry's accommodations, while the remount and the pack animals were parked in a pen.
The grooms probably slept close to the picket lines.. :?:

[Caius Fabius]

"There is only one way to keep pack animals and horses when you're in the open country: picket them or put them in a pen. "

You can "picket" them (which is usually tying them to a rope or line).
You can put them in a pen that you build each night.
You can leave them in a herd, with mounted guards.
You can leave them in a herd, with dismounted herdsmen, (not suggested).
You can hobble them.
You can train them to come when they are called, (used with herd).
You can keep them inside the marching fort, in addition to the above.

Sometimes you have a herd leader or mascot, that the rest of the animals follow. You hobble that one, the rest don't stray.

There are several ways to keep control of horses and mules in "open country". I can provide titles of modern and 19th/20th century reference books if you desire.

Just a couple of thoughts. More horses and mules died
during the American Civil War than soldiers.
Hundreds of thousands of horses and mules were used for transport in
World War Two. One of my father's additional duties in the U.S. Army in Italy during WW2 was to help care for and watch the Regiment's mules.

Some armies, (including the US Army) still use horses and mules for transport today.

[Caius Fabius]

A less well known author on Roman military transport is Raymond Selkirk. He used his air recon skills, military logistic experience and his love of archeology to study the Roman supply and transport question. He has loads of "proof" that most Roman forts and outposts were placed near waterways, and that the Romans improved existing waterways to be convenient for shallow barge traffic, which carried most of the Roman heavy supplies, stores of food, and impedimenta, at least in England and Northern Europe. Some of his books include: "The Piercebridge Formula" and "On the Trail of the Legions". Many of his findings were vindicated during the 1985 drought in the UK, when new finds helped to prove some of his theorized Roman sites and construction.

[Aryaman2]

As posted before, the tail of a force would be very dependant on the mission of that force, for instance moving from one fort to another along a via with supply depots every stage would require much less logistic effort than advancing into enemy barren territory.
Besides, another factor adding to the cue would be officers bagage, as well as camp followers. The more professional the army, usually the longer the tail.

[Mithras]

True, I've just been reading the Strategikon, where Maurice recommends that every squad of 10 men should have a wagon to carry armour, corn, weapons and tent.

I guess a mule is not such an extravagance after all!

[Carlton Bach]

Isn't Maurikios talking about cavalry here? Cavalry horses would hae to be grain-fed at least partly, and for that purpose alone a wagon is not that extravagant. Bernard Bachrach did the maths for Carolingian armies and a wagonload of grain is not all that much divided between a group of horses and men. Unfortunately I can't recall the numbers offhand.

[Mithras]

Ha, it might be. That would make a big difference. I'll check that against the infantry.