05-01-2009, 02:46 PM
This work is incomplete and has been reformatted from the original version by this site. The essay was originally meant to cover all of Roman history and overviews of their military and culture. I only got to part of Roman history because i underestimated how long this essay would take. I just turned the essay in for my class, now its here for you. Feel free to comment.
by Jared Boles
Preface
For over two millennia the people of ancient Rome have brought about a sense of respect from all who study them. They were a people who came from nothing, and quickly grew to have everything. Through cunning works of politics and their more common method of warfare, and Romans quickly created an empire of massive size and population. Through the great influence they held, the Romans impacted cultures across their empire, creating the world as we know it today.
This essay will seek to inform the reader about various aspects of the Roman Empire, and to convey their importance to us all. First we will examine the history of Rome, and then move to its culture, an overview of its military, and finally end with how The Empire has impacted our world. Because much of the information we know about the Romans comes from written accounts from the time, it must be treated with scrutiny. Much of our ancient sources of knowledge are fused with mythology and are often written to portray the truth in a way either the culture or the writer preferred it. Because of this, the reader is advised not to take the information here as absolute truth. This essay only seeks to inform the reader with the truth as it is known today.
An Overview of the Roman Empire and its People
History
The history of Rome as a nation spans a great deal of time, from its traditional founding date of 753 BC until its official fall in 476 AD (“The History of Ancient Rome”). Throughout this time millions of Romans lived and died, millions were born into wealth and poverty, and millions died in a multitude of ways. This transition from one generation to another was no different from that of any other culture, but somehow the Romans grew beyond all others.
But one may ask, “Why should I care about the Romans? They’ve been gone for over a thousand years.” The answer to this is simple. Roman history is important and must be learned because it is our history, and because they made mankind what it is today. Whether by blood, culture, or association with the rest of the world, we are all descendants of the Roman people. This is because Roman influence was so extensive that every land they inhabited kept something of their culture even after Rome’s fall in 476 AD. The influence of the Romans has lasted to the modern day, and has shaped the lives of everyone in between. Not only were the Romans very important to our modern world, their story is also very interesting and entertaining to learn. In his book “Caesar and Christ”, Will Durant describes the entertaining nature of Roman history well by stating that, “The rise of Rome from a crossroads town to a world mastery, its achievement of two centuries of security and peace from the Crimea to Gibraltar and from the Euphrates to Hadrian’s Wall, its spread of classic civilization over the Mediterranean and western European world, its struggle to preserve its ordered realm from a surrounding sea of barbarism, its long, slow crumbling and final catastrophic collapse into darkness and chaos-this is surely the greatest drama ever played by man;” ( preface vii).
The history of early Rome is greatly shrouded in mystery. The Romans themselves provide us with several versions of their founding, but all are heavily laden with mythology. Because of this, what is fact and what is myth within the stories is debated. One version says that the city of Alba Longa had been founded by Iulius, son of a Trojan man named Aeneas who had escaped the destruction of Troy (“The History of Ancient Rome”). One of Aeneas’s descendants was King Numitor, who’s younger brother Amulius usurped his throne. Amulius had Numitor’s sons killed and his daughter Rhea Silvia forced to join the Vestal Virgins, who are chaste priestesses of the goddess Vesta. By doing this, Amulius was attempting to secure his new throne from any possible blood relatives. However, this attempt was not successful. According to the Romans, Mars (the god of war) became lustful for Rhea Silvia and had his way with her. This resulted in the birth of the twins Romulus and Remus (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”).
When Amulius learned of the birth of Romulus and Remus, he had Rhea Silvia thrown into the river Tiber, where she is said to have married the river god. The twins however were sent down river in a basket that eventually became snagged in a fig tree. It was here that the twins are said to have been found by either a female wolf or a shepherd whose wife was a former prostitute that nursed them. The confusion over whether it was a wolf or woman that raised the twins arises from the fact that the Latin word lupa means both ‘she-wolf’ and ‘prostitute’ (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”).
When Romulus and Remus grew older, they raised an army and marched on Alba Longa. In the resulting battle Amulius was killed and Numitor restored to the throne. After aiding their grandfather regain his throne, Romulus and Remus decided to found a city of their own near the area they washed ashore as infants. This process however did not go so smoothly, as the twins quarreled over which of the area’s hills would be home to their new city. Romulus favored the Palatine hill, while Remus favored another. Eventually it was settled that they would build their city on the Palatine as Romulus had wished, but when Romulus began marking the boundary of the city, Remus crossed this boundary. The crossing of this sacred boundary suggested that the defenses of the city could be breached, and Remus was killed for making such an insulting gesture. It is unknown whether Remus was slain by the hand of Romulus or one of his followers. With Remus out of the way, this new city on the Palatine took the name Roma from the name of Romulus. This is the city we know today as Rome (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”).
Beginning with Romulus a line of seven kings ruled Rome for roughly 244 years, from 753 BC to 509 BC (“The History of Ancient Rome”). King Romulus is credited with the creation of the Roman Senate, army, and the patrician class which constituted the senate (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”; “The History of Ancient Rome”). One matter of importance to Romulus was expanding his city, which he seems to have done very well. The method he used was to allow criminals and runaway slaves to settle in Rome, which led to an issue of having too few women. To solve this problem, Romulus is said to have used trickery. What he did was invite many neighboring tribes to attend a festival for Consus, the god of the granary and storehouses. At the party, Romulus and many Roman men took the unmarried women of the Sabine tribe forcefully as their wives. Romulus himself gained his wife Hersilia in this way. King Titus Tatius was understandably angered by this and declared war against Rome. However, it seems the war did not go well for the Romans, because it took the intervention of their new Sabine wives to stop Rome from falling. After this episode, the Romans and Sabines from the city of Cures decided to become one people under the joint rule of Romulus and Titus Tatius.
In 715 BC, at the age of 54, legend says that Romulus was offering a sacrifice to the gods when a thunderstorm began. All but the senators and Romulus ran for cover. When the people returned to the scene, Romulus was missing and the senators claimed he had been taken away by his father Mars. It seems that not even in this time was such a story believed. Romulus was not a very popular leader by this time, and it was suspected that the senators had stabbed him to death (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”). Despite being relatively unpopular, Romulus was later worshiped as the god Quirinus, which was the Sabine equivalent of Mars (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”; “The History of Ancient Rome”).
The second Roman king was a Sabine named Numa Pompilius, who ruled from 715 to 673 BC (“The History of Ancient Rome”). Pompilius was chosen for a job that he doesn’t seem to have even wanted. He was never a warlike king as Romulus had been, but more concerned with religious and cultural matters. Pompilius is credited with founding the temple of Janus, moving the order of Vestal Virgins from its home in Alba Longa to Rome, and brought the number of days in a year to 360 by adding the months of January and February to the calendar. For 43 years Numa Pompilius ruled Rome in peace and was beloved by his people (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”).
The third Roman king, Tullus Hostilius, ruled from 672 BC until 641 BC and was the complete opposite of the late King Pompilius (“The History of Ancient Rome”). Hostilius was a warrior king, who sought to end disputes by the sword. When a dispute led to war between Rome and their brethren in the city of Alba Longa, it was decided that three brothers from each side would fight each other instead of armies. This would help prevent the death of blood relatives from each side. The brothers Horatius of Rome defeated the brothers Curiatus of Alba Longa and thus made Rome the victor. Despite this, King Mettius Fufetius of Alba Longa refused to accept Roman supremacy. Fufetius provoked the neighboring Fidenates into war with the alliance of Alba Longa and Rome. When it came time for battle however, Alba Longa did not join in the fight and left Rome to defend itself. Fufetius must have been surprised when he learned that Rome had won the battle without his help. In rage, King Hostilius had Alba Longa destroyed and King Fufetius torn apart by two chariots. Despite this brutality, the people of Alba Longa were given a home on the Caelian Hill in Rome. This sudden increase in Rome’s population led Hostilius to create a larger senate house at the bottom of the Capitoline Hill, the Curia Hostilia. King Hostilius’s reign was filled with many military successes against the neighboring Sabine tribes, until a plague brought him to take part in more religious duties like his predecessor. Yet this seems to have been unsuccessful in pleasing the gods, because King Hostilius was killed by a lighting strike (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”).
The fourth king of Rome was Ancus Marcius, who ruled from 640 BC until 616 BC, and was the grandson of Numa Pompilius (“The History of Ancient Rome”). The senate chose Marcius as king out of a hope that, like his grandfather, he would bring peace to Rome. The idea that Marcius would have a weakness in war led the prisci latini or ‘Old Latins’ to attack the Romans. It was a surprise to everyone that King Marcius proved to have a talent in warfare. The prisci latini were defeated and their city destroyed, leading Marcius to allow them to settle the Aventine Hill. Ancus Marcius died a successful and popular king (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”).
The fifth king of Rome was Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, a native Etruscan who ruled from 616 BC until 579 BC (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”; “The History of Ancient Rome”). There is a legend that tells how when entering the city of Rome, an eagle swooped down and took Tarquin’s hat but returned to place it back on his head right away. This legend made Tarquinius seem to have fate on his side. When Ancus Marcius was still on the throne, Tarquinius was made guardian of the king’s two sons. This appointment was very fortunate for Tarquinius. When King Marcius died, Tarquinius persuaded the two sons to go hunting while he prepared for the king’s funeral. In the time the sons were absent, Tarquinius worked to gain the votes of the senate to put him on the throne. When the sons of Marcius returned to Rome, they found the city ruled by King Tarquinius. Tarquinius seems to have been a very successful ruler, leading many triumphant campaigns against the Sabines, Latins, and even his native Etruscans. He is also credited with creating Rome’s first sewer, the Cloaca Maxima, which was originally used to drain the swamps that originally lay on the site of the forum. Despite a successful and seemingly poplar reign, Tarquinius was still scorned by the sons of the late King Ancus Marcius, who hired assassins and had him killed (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”).
The sixth king of Rome was Servius Tullius, who ruled from 578 to 534 BC (“The History of Ancient Rome”). At a young age Servius had gained favor with the wife of King Tarquinius, and thus became a possible candidate for the throne. When King Tarquinius died, Servius married his daughters to the late king’s sons so that they would support his claim to the throne. Many accomplishments are attributed to King Servius, however physical evidence suggests that many may have been done at a time outside his time of rule. One questionable accomplishment is the construction of the Servian Wall, which was likely made later in the 4th century BC. Despite this, evidence shows that he is likely responsible for the first Roman coinage, moving the Temple of Diana to Rome, finishing the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, and the first census. Despite many positive accomplishments, the policies of King Servius were becoming increasingly unpopular with the senate by the time he was an old man. A plot was made by Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, the son (or more likely grandson) of the late King Tarquinius, and Servius’ own daughter Tullia. One day Lucius Tarquinius went before the senate in royal robes, and was acknowledged as king by the senators. When King Servius arrived, he was thrown from the senate building and stabbed to death by assassins in the street. Legend says that his daughter Tullia took a carriage down the street after her father’s death, and rode over his body (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”).
The seventh and final king of Rome was Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, also known as Tarquin the Proud. Tarquin, who was a prime player in the assassination of King Servius, held a tyrannical rule over Rome from 534 BC until 510 BC (“The History of Ancient Rome”). Tarquin made himself absolute ruler of Rome, giving him complete authority over criminal cases. Any possessions owned by the convicted were confiscated and became property of the government. Though hated by his people, Tarquin was able to bring power and glory to Rome. He convinced the surrounding Latin tribes to acknowledge Rome as their capital. This was known as the Treaty of Ferentia, which through a single action managed to roughly double the strength of the Roman military. Through the spoils gained in his impressive military campaigns, Tarquin began many projects such as improving the system of roads, and strengthening the city’s defenses. These projects however, were built by the forced labor of the plebeians (common people). The people of Rome had endured Tarquin for 24 years when they decided to stop him. The last straw that had sent the people into a rage was the rape of a noblewoman, Lucretia, by Tarquin’s son Sextus. While Tarquin was on campaign, the nobility declared Rome a republic. The army abandoned the king, and he was thus forced into exile for the rest of his life. A king would no longer be allowed to rule the Roman people. By 509 BC the Roman Republic was born (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”).
Though King Tarquinius was exiled from Rome, he still sought to regain his throne. Because Tarquin was of Etruscan blood, he was able to call upon the Etruscan king of Clusium, Lars Porsenna. There are two stories as to what happened next. The first says that Porsenna besieged Rome and that Consul Publius Valerius Publicola attempted to explain how Tarquin was a tyrant and that Rome ought to be ruled by its people. At this, Tarquin said that Porsenna had no right to be his judge, which insulted the Etruscan king. King Porsenna then lifted the siege. The other story is that Porsenna managed to capture Rome, but placed himself in power instead of Tarquinius. Not wanting to be ruled by another tyrant, the Romans called on the other cities of Latium to rise against Porsenna the Etruscans. At the Battle of Aricia in 506 BC the united Latin forces defeated the Etruscans and won their freedom (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”).
Though Rome was free from the rule of kings, the Republic was under almost constantly at war in its early years. Its main enemies were the Etruscans of Veii, the Volscians, Aequians, and even its Latin neighbors. In 510 BC Rome made a treaty with Carthage that stated it owned a large amount of the surrounding land in Latium, which wasn’t true though it did hold considerable influence over the region. This claim greatly angered the very Latin tribes that had fought alongside Rome just years before, and led to war. These united Latin tribes, the Latin League, were led against Rome by Octavius Mamilius, who was the son-in-law of King Tarquinius. In 496 BC at Lake Regillus the two forces met, with Rome declaring victory. Though the battle doesn’t seem to have been a decisive one, it ended with Mamilius dead and King Tarquin wounded. By 493 BC the war was ended with the signing of the foedus Cassianum, which united the Latin League and Rome in alliance. After this, King Tarquin gave up attempts to retake the Roman throne and was not heard from again (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”).
Since its creation Rome had no written law for the citizens to follow. Law was decided by the king and then by those who held the office of consul in the Republic. The people wanted a clear set of laws to follow, and so three patricians (the noble class) were sent to Athens in 454 BC to study the laws created by Athenian law maker Solon (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”; “Solon The Lawmaker of Athens”). In 451 BC the delegation returned proposing that instead of appointing two consuls that year, they would elect ten men to spend a year creating a set of laws to be written at the end of their term. These ten patricians were known as the decemviri, which means ‘the ten men’. One man who stood out among the decemviri was Appius Claudius Inregellensis Sabinus Crassus, also known simply as Appius Claudius. After a year had passed, the decemviri with a list of laws that pleased the plebeians, but were still felt to be unfinished. Because of this it was decided that another ten men, this time consisting of an equal number of patricians and plebeians, would be elected to finish the laws. Of the previous decemviri, only Appius Claudius ran for re-election. While the first set of decemviri had been honest in their attempt to make laws for the Roman people, the second set had run for election simply as a means to gain power for personal use. When their term was up, the corrupt decemvirs refused to step down, and ruled in tyranny. This would not last for long however. Appius Claudius had become attracted to a girl named Verginia, but she was engaged to another man. So Claudius made up a story claiming that she was another man’s slave, and presided over her trial to make sure things went his way. This invalidated her engagement and made her available for Claudius. When the girl’s father heard of this, he killed his daughter to prevent her from entering slavery. Rome was absolutely enraged; much of the army refused to fight and a large number of plebeians left the city. With war raging on all sides, Rome needed its army and manpower. So finally the decemviri stepped down on the condition that they not be given to the plebs. Though nine of the decemviri escaped justice, Appius Claudius was thrown into prison where he took his own life (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”).
Despite the many problems the decemviri brought to Rome, a set of twelve laws did manage to be written into law. The Twelve Tables governed many different aspects of Roman life, such as the proceedings of a court of law, regulation of general conduct, and also outlined specific punishments for breaking particular laws. Considering the violent times in which the laws were written, it is not surprising that many of the punishments were very harsh. One law stated that if a song was composed about another person, and the song was slanderous in nature, the writer of the song was to be clubbed to death (Adams).
By the time of the Twelve Tables, Rome was quite possibly the strongest city in Latium. The Etruscan city of Veii, twelve miles north of Rome, was one of its only real threats. In the time around 496 BC Celtic peoples known as the Gauls were ravaging Etruria to the north of Rome, weakening the alliance that made the Etruscans strong. This also led to a weakening of Veii, and a perfect opportunity to finally remove one of its oldest enemies. The man who led the attack on Veii was the Roman hero Marcus Furius Camillus. According to the Romans, Camillus besieged Veii for ten years before he drained Alban Lake to allow his army under the city’s walls through now dry streambeds. This victory and gain of power made Rome the undeniable power in Latium (“The History of Ancient Rome”).
With the Veii out of its way, Rome turned its attention to the Falerii tribe. Legend says that when Camillus was sent to capture the city of the Falerians, a teacher kidnapped several noble children and delivered them to the Romans as hostages, so that the Falerii would surrender. Camillus did not like this plan, and so sent the children back home and kept the teacher as his prisoner instead. The Falerians were so shaken by such an honorable act that they surrendered. This turned out to do more bad for Camillus than good however. His army was expecting loot, and would receive none from a people who had willingly surrendered. The Roman people became angered by Camillus when he rode a chariot pulled by four white horses on his celebration day in Rome, which they found to be irreverent at this time. Because of these acts, Camillus was taken to court and charged with taking loot from Veii that should have been given to the state. His punishment was banishment from Rome (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”).
The Gauls, who had been tearing at the Etrurians for years in the north, were on their way to Rome. In an attempt to stop this advance, the Romans met the Gauls at the Battle of Allia just eleven miles outside of Rome. The Romans were completely crushed, leaving a clear path for the Gauls on their way to Rome. On entering the city, the barbarians entered the senate house, where they slaughtered all the senators that were present. In desperation, Rome called for the return of Camillus as their only hope. On being appointed dictator, Camillus quickly sought out any remaining Roman soldiers, and any other allies he could find to turn into an army (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”).
The Gauls occupied Rome for months, but were suffering from disease, a shortage of food, and news that their homeland was being overrun by another Gallic tribe. They were ready to go home, and wanted to strike one last blow. A deal was reached that the Gauls would leave Rome for 1000 pounds of gold, though the measurements were very obviously rigged by the Gauls. Gallic chieftain Brennus even added his sword to the counterweight on the scales with the words “Vae Victis”, ‘Woe to the vanquished’. The Gauls never received a pound of gold however; Camillus met them with his army and paid them in steel (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”).
Over the next hundred year, the Romans saw several more waves of Gauls enter Latium, and yet Rome fared better and better each time. Rome also saw another war with the Etruscans, but were successful enough to force Etruria into accepting peace for at least forty years. During this time, the Romans were wise to set up the aerarium sanctius, which was a special reserve fund to be used in times of disaster and invasion (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”).
From 343 BC until 290 BC Rome found itself in three wars with a new enemy, the Samnites. The Samnites were a barbaric people living to the south of Rome in and around the mountains near Campania, and were allies with Rome for some time before various disputes led to war. In the First Samnite War, the Samnites began attacking the weaker civilized peoples on the plains of Campania. A roman delegation was sent to mediate the situation, but is said to have been treated very rudely. This rudeness brought Rome into the war, which only lasted a short two years due to many military successes for the Romans. The First Samnite War was a great success for Rome that brought her the lands of Campania, with the wealthy city of Capua included (“The History of Ancient Rome”). In 341 BC the Samnites sought peace, and the resulting treaty renewed the old alliance between Samnium and Rome (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”; “The History of Ancient Rome”).
Less than twenty years after the first war between Rome and Samnium The Second Samnite War began. The war was a result of Roman advance further into Campania, and the creation of two colonies on this land, Cales and Fregellae. In response to this, the Samnites sent soldiers to garrison the city of Neapolis (modern Naples), which asked Rome for help. A Roman army arrived at Neapolis and forced the Samnite garrison out, starting The Second Samnite War in 327 BC. The early years of this war were clearly in Rome’s favor, so much so that in 321 BC the Samnites sued for peace. The Romans accepted this, but offered terms so outrageous that the Samnites decided to continue the war rather than accept the terms. After this point, the tide of the war began to turn in favor of the Samnites. At the Battle of Claudine Forks, the Samnites surrounded a Roman army led by both of that year’s Consuls in a mountain pass. The Romans were forced to surrender and accept humiliation at the hands of the enemy. To regain hostages taken in the battle, Rome was forced to agree to give up her colonies at Cales and Fregellae and accept a five year respite to the war. During these five years Rome strengthened itself by absorbing and allying with many of the tribes surrounding Samnium. When the war resumed in 316 BC, Rome still found itself losing. In 311 BC the Etruscans entered the war on the side of the Samnites. It was at this time however that the war began to turn once again, this time in favor of the Romans. In 308 BC the Etruscans were forced to accept harsh Roman terms, and in 304 BC the Samnites did the same (“The History of Ancient Rome”).
In 298 BC, just six years after the end of The Second Samnite War, a new conflict began. The Third Samnite War was an attempt to simply stop Rome’s rising power in the region. The Samnites convinced several of Rome’s old enemies, the Etruscans, Gauls, and Umbrians, to join them in their attempt to defeat Rome. From the very beginning of the war, even though they were surrounded on all sides, Rome dominated the war. In 290 BC the war was over, with Rome the victor. Samnium was forced into alliance with Rome, and never fought her again (“The History of Ancient Rome”).
At this time in Roman history, the years are filled with almost constant war. Southern Italy at this time was mostly controlled by Greek city states, which were at war with the Carthaginians in Sicily and the Lucanian and Bruttian tribes in south of the peninsula. In 282 BC the Greek city-state of Thurii asked for aid against the Lucanians and Bruttians. Rome sent a force to city, along with a small fleet. The powerful Greek city of Tarentum felt threatened by this act, and said that a treaty made with Rome in 302 BC stating that no Roman ships would enter the Bay of Tarentum, had been broken. This angered the Tarentines, but peace was kept. When the majority of Roman forces left Thurii, a small garrison was left behind. The extended settling of Roman troops in the area drove Tarentum to attack the garrison and sink the Roman ships in the bay. Rome however did not feel like getting into a war with Tarentum, and asked that the city only provide compensation for their losses. Tarentum declined the offer; they had gained a new and powerful ally, King Pyrrhus of Epirus (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”). Epirus was a powerful nation on the west coast of Greece, only a short trip by sea to Italy (“Pyrrhic War (280-275 BC)”).
Pyrrhus came to Italy with an army of 25,000 men and twenty war elephants. This was the first war in which the Romans confronted such beasts on the battlefield. At this time Greece held some of the strongest and best equipped militaries in the world, and Rome knew this. The Romans quickly raised a large force of soldiers from all classes, even among the poor who were usually excluded from the army because the state did not supply armor and weapons. They had to be purchased by the individual (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”).
At the Battle of Heraclea Rome had its first taste of the mighty army of Pyrrhus and his war elephants. The battle went surprisingly well for the Romans, who held their own against the phalanx formation of the Greeks. Even king Pyrrhus’s own horse was killed with him in the saddle, which led to him needing rescue. Despite these successes, the battle was a loss for the Romans. The Greek war elephants threw the Roman cavalry into chaos, and drove them away. The Romans are said to have lost 15,000 of their original 20,000 men in the battle. The battle did not go as hoped for Pyrrhus either however. The Greek losses were so great that King Pyrrhus said that another such victory would cost him the war, which resulted in the expression of a ‘Pyrrhic victory’ (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”).
After the Battle of Heraclea, Roman armies in the area of Etruria headed south to deal with Pyrrhus, and new levies were being raised in Rome. Faced with such a massive force to the north, Pyrrhus spent his winter behind the walls of Tarentum. In the spring, the Greeks laid siege to the city of Asculum, and so Rome arrived with a force of 40,000 men to stop him. The Battle of Asculum in 279 BC was truly a victory for neither side, and ended in a stalemate. The Greeks came out of the battle faring better than the Romans, but gained nothing from it (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”).
When the Greek city of Syracuse on the island of Sicily asked King Pyrrhus for aid against the Carthaginians, it gave him an excuse to work toward eventually taking the entire island. Carthage did not want to be kept from dominating the land of Sicily, and so offered Rome an alliance with financial backing and the aid of their navy in order to keep Pyrrhus busy in Italy. Though Rome eventually accepted this deal, Carthage’s plans of keeping Pyrrhus in Italy failed; Pyrrhus set out for Sicily in 278 BC. For three years the Greeks campaigned in Sicily with great success, while Rome was destroying their allies in Italy. Unable to take the Carthaginian city of Lilybaeum, Pyrrhus returned to Italy in 276 BC due to calls for aid from his allies on the mainland. At the Battle of Beneventum Pyrrhus planned on surprising the Roman army, but Rome had learned how to deal with the Greek elephants and phalanx formation. When a second Roman army joined the battle, King Pyrrhus was forced into retreat. The Greeks no longer had the manpower to continue a war in Italy, and so were forced to return to Greece defeated. King Pyrrhus’s parting words seem prophetic, “What a battlefield I am leaving for Carthage and Rome!” It is said that King Pyrrhus continued his career as a great general in Greece, but was later killed in an assault on the city of Argos in 272 BC when an old woman threw a roof tile on his head from the top of her home (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”).
At this time, the Sicilian city of Messana was under the control of a band of ex-mercenaries who called themselves the Mamertini (‘Sons of Mars’). The Mamertines held Messana for over twenty years, and acted as pirates to all who passed between Sicily and Italy. In 264 BC King Hieron of Syracuse (or Hiero as the Romans called him) felt it time to put an end to the Mamertines and their piracy, and thus laid siege to the city. The Mamertines had no means of defeating the armies of Syracuse, and so asked Carthage for aide. Carthage, which was an old enemy of Syracuse, sent their navy to the area. This persuaded Hiero to call off the siege under threat of attack by the strongest navy in the Mediterranean. With a force in the area of Messana, Carthage now sought to take the city for itself. Now the Mamertines asked Rome, master of Italy, against the Carthaginians. After much debate, the Romans concluded that Carthaginian control of Messana would hurt Roman trade in the area. An expeditionary force was sent into the area to attempt to restore Messana to the Mamertines. The small force was enough to make Carthage withdraw from Messana, without any blood spilled or war declared. Though this action was bloodless, Carthage was infuriated. The commander of the force that had retreated from Messana was executed, Carthage became allied with Syracuse, and a force was sent to Messana to take the city. This small dispute over a city of pirates had erupted into one of the most famous wars in history, The Punic Wars (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”).
From the beginning of The First Punic War, things went well for Rome. It was now Rome’s intent to take all of Sicily. Many Carthaginian towns fell, and Rome was moving into Syracuse. King Hiero was aware of Rome’s strength, and negotiated with Rome. The outcome of these negotiations was that Syracuse would now fight on the side of Rome, Messana would belong to Rome, and that Hiero would pay a tribute to Rome for 15 years to keep Syracuse independent and under his control. As a result of this agreement many small Greek towns in the area also became allied with Rome (“The History of Ancient Rome”).
In its past wars, Rome had been lenient to peoples it had conquered. In this new war however, cities were ravaged and the people sold into slavery. This treatment of conquered people inspired hatred in many Sicilians. Despite the great gains of the Romans, Carthage still held western Sicily, and was still master of the seas. The Roman navy was small, and its ships dwarfed by the large quinquereme ships of the Carthaginians. The Carthaginian navy soon began tearing at the Roman coastal cities, and retook many of the towns it had lost. Despite this, Rome was lucky enough to get its hands on a beached Carthaginian quinquereme and copy it. At this time the Romans also developed a brilliant device called the corvus, which was a swiveling bridge that could attach to enemy ships and allow the Romans to board them. The Romans were weak and inexperienced at sea even with their new ships, but the corvus allowed them to fight as if on land, which was where Rome was at its strongest (“The History of Ancient Rome”;“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”).
At the Battle of Mylae in 260 BC, Consul Gaius Duilius attacked approximately 130 ships of the Carthaginian navy with his own fleet of roughly 120 ships. The use of the corvus helped the Romans achieve a great victory, with fourteen Carthaginian ships sunk, and 31 captured. After this battle, Consul Duilius was treated as a hero in Rome. The prows of the Carthaginian ships captured in the battle were used to decorate the speaker’s platform in the forum. The Carthaginian commander, Hannibal Gisco, returned home where he was crucified for incompetence (“Battle of Mylae”;”The History of Ancient Rome”).
In 256 BC the war had been raging for years. Rome continued to push Carthage further back into Sicily, but at a slow pace. Operations were also taking place on Carthaginian held Corsica and Sardinia. Fifty years earlier, King Agathocles of Syracuse had broken through a Carthaginian naval blockade and landed troops in Africa itself. Now Rome sought to do the same, and claim a decisive victory. A fleet of around 330 ships, carrying approximately 40,000 men headed for Africa. Off the southern coast of Sicily the Roman fleet met with around 350 Carthaginian ships at The Battle of Ecnomus. It is estimated that there may have been a total of 140,000 men present at the battle. When the battle was over, Rome continued on to Africa as the victor. The Romans are said to have lost 24 ships while the Carthaginians lost 30, with 64 ships captured by the Romans. At the time, The Battle of Ecnomus was the largest naval battle in history (Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”; “The Battle of Ecnomus (256)”).
After the victory at Ecnomus, Rome was able to land its fleet in Africa under the command of Consul Regulus. The Roman fleet returned home carrying most of the army with it, leaving Regulus around 15,000 men to command in Africa. The Romans captured the town of Adys after defeating a Carthaginian force sent to relieve it. Regulus then moved to Tunes, only a day away from Carthage itself. Carthage was filled with people seeking shelter, many of its towns were rebelling in favor of the Romans, and the city was nearing a state of famine. The Carthaginians offered to negotiate terms of surrender with the Romans, but the demands Regulus placed on them were too great to bear, and so the war continued. Though it was suffering at this time, Carthage’s luck was about to change. A group of Greek mercenaries led by a Spartan soldier named Xanthippus arrived to aid Carthage. Xanthippus was given command of the Carthaginian army, and trained them in the way of the famous Spartan warriors. With his newly trained army of 12,000 infantry, 4,000 cavalry, and 100 war elephants, Xanthippus met the Roman army on the open field of Bagradas in 255 BC. The Romans were almost completely massacred. The army that once held 15,000 men was reduced to the 2,000 who managed to escape. Consul Regulus and some of his forces were captured in the battle; Regulus was later executed by the Carthaginians sometime around 250 BC (Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”; “The History of Ancient Rome”; “Marcus Atilius Regulus”).
The 2,000 lucky Romans who managed to escape from Bagradas to Aspis were picked up by a Roman fleet to be taken home. Sadly however, many would never see home again. Off the coast of southern Sicily the fleet got caught in a storm that threw the ships against the rocky coastal waters. Roughly 70% of the fleet and 100,000 men were lost in the storm. This tragic even made the failure in Africa feel even worse for the Romans. Despite this, campaigns on land were faring much better. In 254 BC the fortress city of Panormus fell to the Romans. In 253 BC another Roman fleet was lost in a storm, which pushed the senate to limit the use of costly naval warfare, and focus more on battling on land. This was a wise move, which brought more attention to land campaigns and aided in the capture of the Sicilian cities of Lipara and Thermae in 252 BC, and a siege on the great fortress of Lilybaeum. These successes brought confidence back to the Romans, and they were soon fighting at sea again (“The History of Ancient Rome”).
In 247 BC an able Carthaginian named Hamilcar Barca was given command of forces in Sicily. Hamilcar used guerilla style tactics to raid the coast of Italy and take the mountain fortresses of Mount Hercte and Mount Eryx in Sicily. All attacks against Hamilcar failed, and he was able to end the unending successes of the Roman army. Though successful and very talented, Hamilcar did not have the manpower to completely stop Roman dominance of Sicily. In the war at sea, Rome had managed to come up with funds for a new fleet off 200 ships. This fleet was sent to blockade the ports of Lilybaeum and Drepanum, which were under siege by Rome, but still received supplies from Carthage. The Carthaginian navy was in a state of disrepair due to the massive funds needed to keep it, but was called up in desperation to stop the blockade. Consul Gaius Lutatius Catulus, who commanded the Roman fleet, sought to attack the Carthaginian fleet before it could reach land and deliver supplies. Catulus also feared that the fleet could drop off reinforcements to the forces of Hamilcar Barca, who would use them very effectively against Rome. When the two fleets met at the Aegates Islands in 241 BC, Rome had a clear advantage. The Romans had better trained men with superior equipment, and were using ships copied from a Carthaginian model that was quite fast. The Carthaginian fleet was not using this superior model of ship, while all ships in the Roman fleet were of this model. In the battle, 50 Carthaginian ships were sunk and 70 captured; 10,000 Carthaginians were taken prisoner. Roman losses were 30 ships sunk and 50 badly damaged. With this loss, Carthaginian forces in Sicily were cut off from supply, and had no hope of victory. Hamilcar Barca was told by Carthage to seek peace, though he was willing to continue the war. In 241 BC Gaius Catulus and Hamilcar Barca represented their nations in peace negotiations. In 241 BC after 23 years of war, The First Punic War was over (Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”; “The History of Ancient Rome”).
The terms settled to end The First Punic War were greatly in Rome’s favor. Carthage would return all Roman prisoners, would not make war with Syracuse or any of its allies. King Hiero’s lands would be expanded and would remain an independent ally of Rome. Messana and several other cities would gain allied status with Rome, while the rest of Sicily would belong directly to Rome. Carthage would also pay Rome 3200 talents over a period of ten years. As a result of the costs exacted on Carthage, the nation was unable to pay many of its mercenary forces, which led to a revolt (Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”; “The History of Ancient Rome”).
Hamilcar Barca was sent to the island Sardinia in 238 BC to stop a major mercenary rebellion there. Hamilcar was simply trying to save a territory for Carthage, and meant no harm to Rome, but the Romans were horrified. One of the most able and anti-Roman commanders of the past war was going back into action. A Roman force was sent to occupy Sardinia, and when Carthage protested, Rome declared war. Carthage was in no position to fight another war so soon after their last defeat. The Romans forced Carthage to hand over control of Sardinia and its neighbor Corsica, and pay an additional 1700 talents in compensation. This understandably caused a lot of hate towards Rome in Carthage, who had only attempted to hold onto one of its territories, but as a result had lost it to an old enemy (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”).
Several years after The First Punic War, the nation of Illyria on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea had developed a large navy under King Agron. The king used this navy in acts of piracy against his Greek neighbors. When the king died, his wife Teuta took the throne and increased the level of piracy. By 230 BC Roman trade in the area was beginning to suffer, and Greek merchants were begging them to take action against the pirates. Rome sent two diplomats to speak with Queen Teuta about the matter, and were said to have been treated rudely. Teuta only agreed that her official forces would not harm the Romans, but that she could not be held responsible for pirates. Both sides left the argument angry, so much so that Queen Teuta had one of the diplomats assassinated while on his trip back to Rome. In 229 BC a fleet of 200 Roman ships was deployed against Illyria, while several legions traveled there by land. Several towns were taken, and many pirate ships destroyed. In 228 BC Queen Teuta was forced to sue for peace. In the peace agreement, Illyria would give up 120 miles of land along its coast and pay tribute. Restrictions were also place on the movements of the Illyrian navy. As a result of this, many Greek cities along the western coast were incredibly grateful to Rome. Though most of Greece was happy with Rome’s actions, Illyria’s ally Macedonia was very angry. The First Illyrian War may have been a small engagement, but it would have an impact on the future that no one could have foreseen at the time (“The History of Ancient Rome”).
In 225 BC an army of several Gallic tribes crossed into Roman land in Etruria. This would be the last Gallic invasion into Italy. The Gallic army consisted of approximately 50,000 infantry, and 20,000 cavalry; Rome was not afraid however. An army of 130,000 Romans was easily raised. At the Battle of Telamon the Gauls were caught between two Roman armies, and annihilated. The Gallic death toll was around 40,000 men, with 10,000 taken prisoner. After this incident, the Romans felt inclined to punish the Gauls. Over a period of two years, three successful campaigns brought all of northern Italy under Roman control, including the city of Mediolanum (modern Milan) (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”).
In 238 BC, just three years after its defeat in The First Punic War, Carthage began campaigning in Spain. Hamilcar Barca led the Carthaginian armies with great success. When Hamilcar died, his son-in-law Hasdrubal the Elder took over operations in Spain. One of Hasdrubal’s greatest accomplishments was the founding of the prosperous coastal city of Carthago Nova. When Rome questioned the peaceful intentions of the Carthaginians in 231 BC, Hamilcar (who was alive at the time) explained that in order to pay tribute to Rome, Carthage needed a new source of income. This income was furnished by the campaigns in Spain, and its productive mines. Despite assurances by the Carthaginians, in 226 BC the Romans convinced Hasdrubal to agree to limit expansion to the area south of the river Ebro. In 223 BC Rome made the disasterous move of allying with the town of Saguntum, which was on the Carthaginian side of the river Ebro (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”; Durant 48).
In 221 BC Hasdrubal the Elder was assassinated; so Hannibal Barca, the son of Hamilcar Barca, took over Carthaginian operations in Spain. From a young age Hannibal had been taught by his father to hate Rome, and these teachings were very effective. When a war erupted between Saguntum and a Carthaginian ally, the Turboletae tribe, Rome felt obligated to aid her ally. This intervention in the war led to small losses among the Turboletae, which eventually gave Hannibal cause to lay siege to Saguntum in 219 BC. Rome demanded the surrender of Hannibal, but Carthage tried to explain how the Roman alliance with Saguntum had been at conflict with their treaty in 226 BC. The chief envoy of the Romans, Quintus Fabius Maximus, was not willing to negotiate (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”; “The History of Ancient Rome”). It’s said that Fabius pulled the folds of his toga into his hands and said, "’we bring you peace and war. Take which you will.' Scarcely had he spoken when the answer no less proudly rang out: 'Whichever you please, we do not care.' Fabius let the gathered folds fall, and cried: 'We give you war'" (“The History of Ancient Rome”).
In 218 BC Hannibal crossed the river Ebro with nearly 60,000 troops, including about 38 war elephants. Hannibal traveled through northern Spain, and into Gaul where he spent fifteen days crossing the cold and rugged Alps. When Hannibal emerged from the Alps into Italy his army had lost over half its size, and most of his war elephants were dead. Despite his losses, the speed at which Hannibal was able to travel by foot from Spain to Italy stands as an amazing achievement. Once Across the Alps, Hannibal met the army of Publius Scipio at the Ticinus River. The Roman army of 40,000 received heavy losses from Hannibal’s Numidian calvary, and Scipio had to be rescued from the field by his son after receiving a severe wound. The Romans were easily swept aside by Hannibal’s more experienced troops. Though the Battle of Ticinus is considered to have been a relatively small battle, news of Hannibal’s victory spread through the neighboring Gallic tribes, bringing many new warriors to Hannibal’s cause (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”; “Hannibal Barca”).
After the Battle of Ticinus the remnants of Publius Scipio’s army joined with that of consul Sempronius Longus. On the plain west of the River Trebia Hannibal scouted the area as a potential battlefield. Before the battle Hanninbal left 2,000 men commanded by his brother Mago hiding either in a nearby gully or in the bushes around the bend of the river. The next day Hannibal sent some of his Numidian cavalry to goad Longus into an attack. This provocation was successful in drawing the Romans across the freezing river right into Hannibal’s army, which was warm and rested unlike the Romans. First, the Roman skirmishers (velites) advanced and were able to take out the last of Hannibal’s remaining elephants, but were quickly forced back. The Roman cavalry fared poorly as well, only the infantry managed to hold itself together for long. Mago’s hidden 2,000 troops, the Carthaginian cavalry, and skirmishers circled the Romans and eventually crushed them. Only 10,000 legionaries of the original 40,000 managed to escape from the battlefield (Rickard, J; “Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”; “The History of Ancient Rome”).
by Jared Boles
Preface
For over two millennia the people of ancient Rome have brought about a sense of respect from all who study them. They were a people who came from nothing, and quickly grew to have everything. Through cunning works of politics and their more common method of warfare, and Romans quickly created an empire of massive size and population. Through the great influence they held, the Romans impacted cultures across their empire, creating the world as we know it today.
This essay will seek to inform the reader about various aspects of the Roman Empire, and to convey their importance to us all. First we will examine the history of Rome, and then move to its culture, an overview of its military, and finally end with how The Empire has impacted our world. Because much of the information we know about the Romans comes from written accounts from the time, it must be treated with scrutiny. Much of our ancient sources of knowledge are fused with mythology and are often written to portray the truth in a way either the culture or the writer preferred it. Because of this, the reader is advised not to take the information here as absolute truth. This essay only seeks to inform the reader with the truth as it is known today.
An Overview of the Roman Empire and its People
History
The history of Rome as a nation spans a great deal of time, from its traditional founding date of 753 BC until its official fall in 476 AD (“The History of Ancient Rome”). Throughout this time millions of Romans lived and died, millions were born into wealth and poverty, and millions died in a multitude of ways. This transition from one generation to another was no different from that of any other culture, but somehow the Romans grew beyond all others.
But one may ask, “Why should I care about the Romans? They’ve been gone for over a thousand years.” The answer to this is simple. Roman history is important and must be learned because it is our history, and because they made mankind what it is today. Whether by blood, culture, or association with the rest of the world, we are all descendants of the Roman people. This is because Roman influence was so extensive that every land they inhabited kept something of their culture even after Rome’s fall in 476 AD. The influence of the Romans has lasted to the modern day, and has shaped the lives of everyone in between. Not only were the Romans very important to our modern world, their story is also very interesting and entertaining to learn. In his book “Caesar and Christ”, Will Durant describes the entertaining nature of Roman history well by stating that, “The rise of Rome from a crossroads town to a world mastery, its achievement of two centuries of security and peace from the Crimea to Gibraltar and from the Euphrates to Hadrian’s Wall, its spread of classic civilization over the Mediterranean and western European world, its struggle to preserve its ordered realm from a surrounding sea of barbarism, its long, slow crumbling and final catastrophic collapse into darkness and chaos-this is surely the greatest drama ever played by man;” ( preface vii).
The history of early Rome is greatly shrouded in mystery. The Romans themselves provide us with several versions of their founding, but all are heavily laden with mythology. Because of this, what is fact and what is myth within the stories is debated. One version says that the city of Alba Longa had been founded by Iulius, son of a Trojan man named Aeneas who had escaped the destruction of Troy (“The History of Ancient Rome”). One of Aeneas’s descendants was King Numitor, who’s younger brother Amulius usurped his throne. Amulius had Numitor’s sons killed and his daughter Rhea Silvia forced to join the Vestal Virgins, who are chaste priestesses of the goddess Vesta. By doing this, Amulius was attempting to secure his new throne from any possible blood relatives. However, this attempt was not successful. According to the Romans, Mars (the god of war) became lustful for Rhea Silvia and had his way with her. This resulted in the birth of the twins Romulus and Remus (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”).
When Amulius learned of the birth of Romulus and Remus, he had Rhea Silvia thrown into the river Tiber, where she is said to have married the river god. The twins however were sent down river in a basket that eventually became snagged in a fig tree. It was here that the twins are said to have been found by either a female wolf or a shepherd whose wife was a former prostitute that nursed them. The confusion over whether it was a wolf or woman that raised the twins arises from the fact that the Latin word lupa means both ‘she-wolf’ and ‘prostitute’ (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”).
When Romulus and Remus grew older, they raised an army and marched on Alba Longa. In the resulting battle Amulius was killed and Numitor restored to the throne. After aiding their grandfather regain his throne, Romulus and Remus decided to found a city of their own near the area they washed ashore as infants. This process however did not go so smoothly, as the twins quarreled over which of the area’s hills would be home to their new city. Romulus favored the Palatine hill, while Remus favored another. Eventually it was settled that they would build their city on the Palatine as Romulus had wished, but when Romulus began marking the boundary of the city, Remus crossed this boundary. The crossing of this sacred boundary suggested that the defenses of the city could be breached, and Remus was killed for making such an insulting gesture. It is unknown whether Remus was slain by the hand of Romulus or one of his followers. With Remus out of the way, this new city on the Palatine took the name Roma from the name of Romulus. This is the city we know today as Rome (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”).
Beginning with Romulus a line of seven kings ruled Rome for roughly 244 years, from 753 BC to 509 BC (“The History of Ancient Rome”). King Romulus is credited with the creation of the Roman Senate, army, and the patrician class which constituted the senate (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”; “The History of Ancient Rome”). One matter of importance to Romulus was expanding his city, which he seems to have done very well. The method he used was to allow criminals and runaway slaves to settle in Rome, which led to an issue of having too few women. To solve this problem, Romulus is said to have used trickery. What he did was invite many neighboring tribes to attend a festival for Consus, the god of the granary and storehouses. At the party, Romulus and many Roman men took the unmarried women of the Sabine tribe forcefully as their wives. Romulus himself gained his wife Hersilia in this way. King Titus Tatius was understandably angered by this and declared war against Rome. However, it seems the war did not go well for the Romans, because it took the intervention of their new Sabine wives to stop Rome from falling. After this episode, the Romans and Sabines from the city of Cures decided to become one people under the joint rule of Romulus and Titus Tatius.
In 715 BC, at the age of 54, legend says that Romulus was offering a sacrifice to the gods when a thunderstorm began. All but the senators and Romulus ran for cover. When the people returned to the scene, Romulus was missing and the senators claimed he had been taken away by his father Mars. It seems that not even in this time was such a story believed. Romulus was not a very popular leader by this time, and it was suspected that the senators had stabbed him to death (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”). Despite being relatively unpopular, Romulus was later worshiped as the god Quirinus, which was the Sabine equivalent of Mars (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”; “The History of Ancient Rome”).
The second Roman king was a Sabine named Numa Pompilius, who ruled from 715 to 673 BC (“The History of Ancient Rome”). Pompilius was chosen for a job that he doesn’t seem to have even wanted. He was never a warlike king as Romulus had been, but more concerned with religious and cultural matters. Pompilius is credited with founding the temple of Janus, moving the order of Vestal Virgins from its home in Alba Longa to Rome, and brought the number of days in a year to 360 by adding the months of January and February to the calendar. For 43 years Numa Pompilius ruled Rome in peace and was beloved by his people (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”).
The third Roman king, Tullus Hostilius, ruled from 672 BC until 641 BC and was the complete opposite of the late King Pompilius (“The History of Ancient Rome”). Hostilius was a warrior king, who sought to end disputes by the sword. When a dispute led to war between Rome and their brethren in the city of Alba Longa, it was decided that three brothers from each side would fight each other instead of armies. This would help prevent the death of blood relatives from each side. The brothers Horatius of Rome defeated the brothers Curiatus of Alba Longa and thus made Rome the victor. Despite this, King Mettius Fufetius of Alba Longa refused to accept Roman supremacy. Fufetius provoked the neighboring Fidenates into war with the alliance of Alba Longa and Rome. When it came time for battle however, Alba Longa did not join in the fight and left Rome to defend itself. Fufetius must have been surprised when he learned that Rome had won the battle without his help. In rage, King Hostilius had Alba Longa destroyed and King Fufetius torn apart by two chariots. Despite this brutality, the people of Alba Longa were given a home on the Caelian Hill in Rome. This sudden increase in Rome’s population led Hostilius to create a larger senate house at the bottom of the Capitoline Hill, the Curia Hostilia. King Hostilius’s reign was filled with many military successes against the neighboring Sabine tribes, until a plague brought him to take part in more religious duties like his predecessor. Yet this seems to have been unsuccessful in pleasing the gods, because King Hostilius was killed by a lighting strike (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”).
The fourth king of Rome was Ancus Marcius, who ruled from 640 BC until 616 BC, and was the grandson of Numa Pompilius (“The History of Ancient Rome”). The senate chose Marcius as king out of a hope that, like his grandfather, he would bring peace to Rome. The idea that Marcius would have a weakness in war led the prisci latini or ‘Old Latins’ to attack the Romans. It was a surprise to everyone that King Marcius proved to have a talent in warfare. The prisci latini were defeated and their city destroyed, leading Marcius to allow them to settle the Aventine Hill. Ancus Marcius died a successful and popular king (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”).
The fifth king of Rome was Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, a native Etruscan who ruled from 616 BC until 579 BC (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”; “The History of Ancient Rome”). There is a legend that tells how when entering the city of Rome, an eagle swooped down and took Tarquin’s hat but returned to place it back on his head right away. This legend made Tarquinius seem to have fate on his side. When Ancus Marcius was still on the throne, Tarquinius was made guardian of the king’s two sons. This appointment was very fortunate for Tarquinius. When King Marcius died, Tarquinius persuaded the two sons to go hunting while he prepared for the king’s funeral. In the time the sons were absent, Tarquinius worked to gain the votes of the senate to put him on the throne. When the sons of Marcius returned to Rome, they found the city ruled by King Tarquinius. Tarquinius seems to have been a very successful ruler, leading many triumphant campaigns against the Sabines, Latins, and even his native Etruscans. He is also credited with creating Rome’s first sewer, the Cloaca Maxima, which was originally used to drain the swamps that originally lay on the site of the forum. Despite a successful and seemingly poplar reign, Tarquinius was still scorned by the sons of the late King Ancus Marcius, who hired assassins and had him killed (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”).
The sixth king of Rome was Servius Tullius, who ruled from 578 to 534 BC (“The History of Ancient Rome”). At a young age Servius had gained favor with the wife of King Tarquinius, and thus became a possible candidate for the throne. When King Tarquinius died, Servius married his daughters to the late king’s sons so that they would support his claim to the throne. Many accomplishments are attributed to King Servius, however physical evidence suggests that many may have been done at a time outside his time of rule. One questionable accomplishment is the construction of the Servian Wall, which was likely made later in the 4th century BC. Despite this, evidence shows that he is likely responsible for the first Roman coinage, moving the Temple of Diana to Rome, finishing the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, and the first census. Despite many positive accomplishments, the policies of King Servius were becoming increasingly unpopular with the senate by the time he was an old man. A plot was made by Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, the son (or more likely grandson) of the late King Tarquinius, and Servius’ own daughter Tullia. One day Lucius Tarquinius went before the senate in royal robes, and was acknowledged as king by the senators. When King Servius arrived, he was thrown from the senate building and stabbed to death by assassins in the street. Legend says that his daughter Tullia took a carriage down the street after her father’s death, and rode over his body (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”).
The seventh and final king of Rome was Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, also known as Tarquin the Proud. Tarquin, who was a prime player in the assassination of King Servius, held a tyrannical rule over Rome from 534 BC until 510 BC (“The History of Ancient Rome”). Tarquin made himself absolute ruler of Rome, giving him complete authority over criminal cases. Any possessions owned by the convicted were confiscated and became property of the government. Though hated by his people, Tarquin was able to bring power and glory to Rome. He convinced the surrounding Latin tribes to acknowledge Rome as their capital. This was known as the Treaty of Ferentia, which through a single action managed to roughly double the strength of the Roman military. Through the spoils gained in his impressive military campaigns, Tarquin began many projects such as improving the system of roads, and strengthening the city’s defenses. These projects however, were built by the forced labor of the plebeians (common people). The people of Rome had endured Tarquin for 24 years when they decided to stop him. The last straw that had sent the people into a rage was the rape of a noblewoman, Lucretia, by Tarquin’s son Sextus. While Tarquin was on campaign, the nobility declared Rome a republic. The army abandoned the king, and he was thus forced into exile for the rest of his life. A king would no longer be allowed to rule the Roman people. By 509 BC the Roman Republic was born (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”).
Though King Tarquinius was exiled from Rome, he still sought to regain his throne. Because Tarquin was of Etruscan blood, he was able to call upon the Etruscan king of Clusium, Lars Porsenna. There are two stories as to what happened next. The first says that Porsenna besieged Rome and that Consul Publius Valerius Publicola attempted to explain how Tarquin was a tyrant and that Rome ought to be ruled by its people. At this, Tarquin said that Porsenna had no right to be his judge, which insulted the Etruscan king. King Porsenna then lifted the siege. The other story is that Porsenna managed to capture Rome, but placed himself in power instead of Tarquinius. Not wanting to be ruled by another tyrant, the Romans called on the other cities of Latium to rise against Porsenna the Etruscans. At the Battle of Aricia in 506 BC the united Latin forces defeated the Etruscans and won their freedom (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”).
Though Rome was free from the rule of kings, the Republic was under almost constantly at war in its early years. Its main enemies were the Etruscans of Veii, the Volscians, Aequians, and even its Latin neighbors. In 510 BC Rome made a treaty with Carthage that stated it owned a large amount of the surrounding land in Latium, which wasn’t true though it did hold considerable influence over the region. This claim greatly angered the very Latin tribes that had fought alongside Rome just years before, and led to war. These united Latin tribes, the Latin League, were led against Rome by Octavius Mamilius, who was the son-in-law of King Tarquinius. In 496 BC at Lake Regillus the two forces met, with Rome declaring victory. Though the battle doesn’t seem to have been a decisive one, it ended with Mamilius dead and King Tarquin wounded. By 493 BC the war was ended with the signing of the foedus Cassianum, which united the Latin League and Rome in alliance. After this, King Tarquin gave up attempts to retake the Roman throne and was not heard from again (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”).
Since its creation Rome had no written law for the citizens to follow. Law was decided by the king and then by those who held the office of consul in the Republic. The people wanted a clear set of laws to follow, and so three patricians (the noble class) were sent to Athens in 454 BC to study the laws created by Athenian law maker Solon (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”; “Solon The Lawmaker of Athens”). In 451 BC the delegation returned proposing that instead of appointing two consuls that year, they would elect ten men to spend a year creating a set of laws to be written at the end of their term. These ten patricians were known as the decemviri, which means ‘the ten men’. One man who stood out among the decemviri was Appius Claudius Inregellensis Sabinus Crassus, also known simply as Appius Claudius. After a year had passed, the decemviri with a list of laws that pleased the plebeians, but were still felt to be unfinished. Because of this it was decided that another ten men, this time consisting of an equal number of patricians and plebeians, would be elected to finish the laws. Of the previous decemviri, only Appius Claudius ran for re-election. While the first set of decemviri had been honest in their attempt to make laws for the Roman people, the second set had run for election simply as a means to gain power for personal use. When their term was up, the corrupt decemvirs refused to step down, and ruled in tyranny. This would not last for long however. Appius Claudius had become attracted to a girl named Verginia, but she was engaged to another man. So Claudius made up a story claiming that she was another man’s slave, and presided over her trial to make sure things went his way. This invalidated her engagement and made her available for Claudius. When the girl’s father heard of this, he killed his daughter to prevent her from entering slavery. Rome was absolutely enraged; much of the army refused to fight and a large number of plebeians left the city. With war raging on all sides, Rome needed its army and manpower. So finally the decemviri stepped down on the condition that they not be given to the plebs. Though nine of the decemviri escaped justice, Appius Claudius was thrown into prison where he took his own life (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”).
Despite the many problems the decemviri brought to Rome, a set of twelve laws did manage to be written into law. The Twelve Tables governed many different aspects of Roman life, such as the proceedings of a court of law, regulation of general conduct, and also outlined specific punishments for breaking particular laws. Considering the violent times in which the laws were written, it is not surprising that many of the punishments were very harsh. One law stated that if a song was composed about another person, and the song was slanderous in nature, the writer of the song was to be clubbed to death (Adams).
By the time of the Twelve Tables, Rome was quite possibly the strongest city in Latium. The Etruscan city of Veii, twelve miles north of Rome, was one of its only real threats. In the time around 496 BC Celtic peoples known as the Gauls were ravaging Etruria to the north of Rome, weakening the alliance that made the Etruscans strong. This also led to a weakening of Veii, and a perfect opportunity to finally remove one of its oldest enemies. The man who led the attack on Veii was the Roman hero Marcus Furius Camillus. According to the Romans, Camillus besieged Veii for ten years before he drained Alban Lake to allow his army under the city’s walls through now dry streambeds. This victory and gain of power made Rome the undeniable power in Latium (“The History of Ancient Rome”).
With the Veii out of its way, Rome turned its attention to the Falerii tribe. Legend says that when Camillus was sent to capture the city of the Falerians, a teacher kidnapped several noble children and delivered them to the Romans as hostages, so that the Falerii would surrender. Camillus did not like this plan, and so sent the children back home and kept the teacher as his prisoner instead. The Falerians were so shaken by such an honorable act that they surrendered. This turned out to do more bad for Camillus than good however. His army was expecting loot, and would receive none from a people who had willingly surrendered. The Roman people became angered by Camillus when he rode a chariot pulled by four white horses on his celebration day in Rome, which they found to be irreverent at this time. Because of these acts, Camillus was taken to court and charged with taking loot from Veii that should have been given to the state. His punishment was banishment from Rome (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”).
The Gauls, who had been tearing at the Etrurians for years in the north, were on their way to Rome. In an attempt to stop this advance, the Romans met the Gauls at the Battle of Allia just eleven miles outside of Rome. The Romans were completely crushed, leaving a clear path for the Gauls on their way to Rome. On entering the city, the barbarians entered the senate house, where they slaughtered all the senators that were present. In desperation, Rome called for the return of Camillus as their only hope. On being appointed dictator, Camillus quickly sought out any remaining Roman soldiers, and any other allies he could find to turn into an army (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”).
The Gauls occupied Rome for months, but were suffering from disease, a shortage of food, and news that their homeland was being overrun by another Gallic tribe. They were ready to go home, and wanted to strike one last blow. A deal was reached that the Gauls would leave Rome for 1000 pounds of gold, though the measurements were very obviously rigged by the Gauls. Gallic chieftain Brennus even added his sword to the counterweight on the scales with the words “Vae Victis”, ‘Woe to the vanquished’. The Gauls never received a pound of gold however; Camillus met them with his army and paid them in steel (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”).
Over the next hundred year, the Romans saw several more waves of Gauls enter Latium, and yet Rome fared better and better each time. Rome also saw another war with the Etruscans, but were successful enough to force Etruria into accepting peace for at least forty years. During this time, the Romans were wise to set up the aerarium sanctius, which was a special reserve fund to be used in times of disaster and invasion (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”).
From 343 BC until 290 BC Rome found itself in three wars with a new enemy, the Samnites. The Samnites were a barbaric people living to the south of Rome in and around the mountains near Campania, and were allies with Rome for some time before various disputes led to war. In the First Samnite War, the Samnites began attacking the weaker civilized peoples on the plains of Campania. A roman delegation was sent to mediate the situation, but is said to have been treated very rudely. This rudeness brought Rome into the war, which only lasted a short two years due to many military successes for the Romans. The First Samnite War was a great success for Rome that brought her the lands of Campania, with the wealthy city of Capua included (“The History of Ancient Rome”). In 341 BC the Samnites sought peace, and the resulting treaty renewed the old alliance between Samnium and Rome (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”; “The History of Ancient Rome”).
Less than twenty years after the first war between Rome and Samnium The Second Samnite War began. The war was a result of Roman advance further into Campania, and the creation of two colonies on this land, Cales and Fregellae. In response to this, the Samnites sent soldiers to garrison the city of Neapolis (modern Naples), which asked Rome for help. A Roman army arrived at Neapolis and forced the Samnite garrison out, starting The Second Samnite War in 327 BC. The early years of this war were clearly in Rome’s favor, so much so that in 321 BC the Samnites sued for peace. The Romans accepted this, but offered terms so outrageous that the Samnites decided to continue the war rather than accept the terms. After this point, the tide of the war began to turn in favor of the Samnites. At the Battle of Claudine Forks, the Samnites surrounded a Roman army led by both of that year’s Consuls in a mountain pass. The Romans were forced to surrender and accept humiliation at the hands of the enemy. To regain hostages taken in the battle, Rome was forced to agree to give up her colonies at Cales and Fregellae and accept a five year respite to the war. During these five years Rome strengthened itself by absorbing and allying with many of the tribes surrounding Samnium. When the war resumed in 316 BC, Rome still found itself losing. In 311 BC the Etruscans entered the war on the side of the Samnites. It was at this time however that the war began to turn once again, this time in favor of the Romans. In 308 BC the Etruscans were forced to accept harsh Roman terms, and in 304 BC the Samnites did the same (“The History of Ancient Rome”).
In 298 BC, just six years after the end of The Second Samnite War, a new conflict began. The Third Samnite War was an attempt to simply stop Rome’s rising power in the region. The Samnites convinced several of Rome’s old enemies, the Etruscans, Gauls, and Umbrians, to join them in their attempt to defeat Rome. From the very beginning of the war, even though they were surrounded on all sides, Rome dominated the war. In 290 BC the war was over, with Rome the victor. Samnium was forced into alliance with Rome, and never fought her again (“The History of Ancient Rome”).
At this time in Roman history, the years are filled with almost constant war. Southern Italy at this time was mostly controlled by Greek city states, which were at war with the Carthaginians in Sicily and the Lucanian and Bruttian tribes in south of the peninsula. In 282 BC the Greek city-state of Thurii asked for aid against the Lucanians and Bruttians. Rome sent a force to city, along with a small fleet. The powerful Greek city of Tarentum felt threatened by this act, and said that a treaty made with Rome in 302 BC stating that no Roman ships would enter the Bay of Tarentum, had been broken. This angered the Tarentines, but peace was kept. When the majority of Roman forces left Thurii, a small garrison was left behind. The extended settling of Roman troops in the area drove Tarentum to attack the garrison and sink the Roman ships in the bay. Rome however did not feel like getting into a war with Tarentum, and asked that the city only provide compensation for their losses. Tarentum declined the offer; they had gained a new and powerful ally, King Pyrrhus of Epirus (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”). Epirus was a powerful nation on the west coast of Greece, only a short trip by sea to Italy (“Pyrrhic War (280-275 BC)”).
Pyrrhus came to Italy with an army of 25,000 men and twenty war elephants. This was the first war in which the Romans confronted such beasts on the battlefield. At this time Greece held some of the strongest and best equipped militaries in the world, and Rome knew this. The Romans quickly raised a large force of soldiers from all classes, even among the poor who were usually excluded from the army because the state did not supply armor and weapons. They had to be purchased by the individual (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”).
At the Battle of Heraclea Rome had its first taste of the mighty army of Pyrrhus and his war elephants. The battle went surprisingly well for the Romans, who held their own against the phalanx formation of the Greeks. Even king Pyrrhus’s own horse was killed with him in the saddle, which led to him needing rescue. Despite these successes, the battle was a loss for the Romans. The Greek war elephants threw the Roman cavalry into chaos, and drove them away. The Romans are said to have lost 15,000 of their original 20,000 men in the battle. The battle did not go as hoped for Pyrrhus either however. The Greek losses were so great that King Pyrrhus said that another such victory would cost him the war, which resulted in the expression of a ‘Pyrrhic victory’ (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”).
After the Battle of Heraclea, Roman armies in the area of Etruria headed south to deal with Pyrrhus, and new levies were being raised in Rome. Faced with such a massive force to the north, Pyrrhus spent his winter behind the walls of Tarentum. In the spring, the Greeks laid siege to the city of Asculum, and so Rome arrived with a force of 40,000 men to stop him. The Battle of Asculum in 279 BC was truly a victory for neither side, and ended in a stalemate. The Greeks came out of the battle faring better than the Romans, but gained nothing from it (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”).
When the Greek city of Syracuse on the island of Sicily asked King Pyrrhus for aid against the Carthaginians, it gave him an excuse to work toward eventually taking the entire island. Carthage did not want to be kept from dominating the land of Sicily, and so offered Rome an alliance with financial backing and the aid of their navy in order to keep Pyrrhus busy in Italy. Though Rome eventually accepted this deal, Carthage’s plans of keeping Pyrrhus in Italy failed; Pyrrhus set out for Sicily in 278 BC. For three years the Greeks campaigned in Sicily with great success, while Rome was destroying their allies in Italy. Unable to take the Carthaginian city of Lilybaeum, Pyrrhus returned to Italy in 276 BC due to calls for aid from his allies on the mainland. At the Battle of Beneventum Pyrrhus planned on surprising the Roman army, but Rome had learned how to deal with the Greek elephants and phalanx formation. When a second Roman army joined the battle, King Pyrrhus was forced into retreat. The Greeks no longer had the manpower to continue a war in Italy, and so were forced to return to Greece defeated. King Pyrrhus’s parting words seem prophetic, “What a battlefield I am leaving for Carthage and Rome!” It is said that King Pyrrhus continued his career as a great general in Greece, but was later killed in an assault on the city of Argos in 272 BC when an old woman threw a roof tile on his head from the top of her home (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”).
At this time, the Sicilian city of Messana was under the control of a band of ex-mercenaries who called themselves the Mamertini (‘Sons of Mars’). The Mamertines held Messana for over twenty years, and acted as pirates to all who passed between Sicily and Italy. In 264 BC King Hieron of Syracuse (or Hiero as the Romans called him) felt it time to put an end to the Mamertines and their piracy, and thus laid siege to the city. The Mamertines had no means of defeating the armies of Syracuse, and so asked Carthage for aide. Carthage, which was an old enemy of Syracuse, sent their navy to the area. This persuaded Hiero to call off the siege under threat of attack by the strongest navy in the Mediterranean. With a force in the area of Messana, Carthage now sought to take the city for itself. Now the Mamertines asked Rome, master of Italy, against the Carthaginians. After much debate, the Romans concluded that Carthaginian control of Messana would hurt Roman trade in the area. An expeditionary force was sent into the area to attempt to restore Messana to the Mamertines. The small force was enough to make Carthage withdraw from Messana, without any blood spilled or war declared. Though this action was bloodless, Carthage was infuriated. The commander of the force that had retreated from Messana was executed, Carthage became allied with Syracuse, and a force was sent to Messana to take the city. This small dispute over a city of pirates had erupted into one of the most famous wars in history, The Punic Wars (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”).
From the beginning of The First Punic War, things went well for Rome. It was now Rome’s intent to take all of Sicily. Many Carthaginian towns fell, and Rome was moving into Syracuse. King Hiero was aware of Rome’s strength, and negotiated with Rome. The outcome of these negotiations was that Syracuse would now fight on the side of Rome, Messana would belong to Rome, and that Hiero would pay a tribute to Rome for 15 years to keep Syracuse independent and under his control. As a result of this agreement many small Greek towns in the area also became allied with Rome (“The History of Ancient Rome”).
In its past wars, Rome had been lenient to peoples it had conquered. In this new war however, cities were ravaged and the people sold into slavery. This treatment of conquered people inspired hatred in many Sicilians. Despite the great gains of the Romans, Carthage still held western Sicily, and was still master of the seas. The Roman navy was small, and its ships dwarfed by the large quinquereme ships of the Carthaginians. The Carthaginian navy soon began tearing at the Roman coastal cities, and retook many of the towns it had lost. Despite this, Rome was lucky enough to get its hands on a beached Carthaginian quinquereme and copy it. At this time the Romans also developed a brilliant device called the corvus, which was a swiveling bridge that could attach to enemy ships and allow the Romans to board them. The Romans were weak and inexperienced at sea even with their new ships, but the corvus allowed them to fight as if on land, which was where Rome was at its strongest (“The History of Ancient Rome”;“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”).
At the Battle of Mylae in 260 BC, Consul Gaius Duilius attacked approximately 130 ships of the Carthaginian navy with his own fleet of roughly 120 ships. The use of the corvus helped the Romans achieve a great victory, with fourteen Carthaginian ships sunk, and 31 captured. After this battle, Consul Duilius was treated as a hero in Rome. The prows of the Carthaginian ships captured in the battle were used to decorate the speaker’s platform in the forum. The Carthaginian commander, Hannibal Gisco, returned home where he was crucified for incompetence (“Battle of Mylae”;”The History of Ancient Rome”).
In 256 BC the war had been raging for years. Rome continued to push Carthage further back into Sicily, but at a slow pace. Operations were also taking place on Carthaginian held Corsica and Sardinia. Fifty years earlier, King Agathocles of Syracuse had broken through a Carthaginian naval blockade and landed troops in Africa itself. Now Rome sought to do the same, and claim a decisive victory. A fleet of around 330 ships, carrying approximately 40,000 men headed for Africa. Off the southern coast of Sicily the Roman fleet met with around 350 Carthaginian ships at The Battle of Ecnomus. It is estimated that there may have been a total of 140,000 men present at the battle. When the battle was over, Rome continued on to Africa as the victor. The Romans are said to have lost 24 ships while the Carthaginians lost 30, with 64 ships captured by the Romans. At the time, The Battle of Ecnomus was the largest naval battle in history (Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”; “The Battle of Ecnomus (256)”).
After the victory at Ecnomus, Rome was able to land its fleet in Africa under the command of Consul Regulus. The Roman fleet returned home carrying most of the army with it, leaving Regulus around 15,000 men to command in Africa. The Romans captured the town of Adys after defeating a Carthaginian force sent to relieve it. Regulus then moved to Tunes, only a day away from Carthage itself. Carthage was filled with people seeking shelter, many of its towns were rebelling in favor of the Romans, and the city was nearing a state of famine. The Carthaginians offered to negotiate terms of surrender with the Romans, but the demands Regulus placed on them were too great to bear, and so the war continued. Though it was suffering at this time, Carthage’s luck was about to change. A group of Greek mercenaries led by a Spartan soldier named Xanthippus arrived to aid Carthage. Xanthippus was given command of the Carthaginian army, and trained them in the way of the famous Spartan warriors. With his newly trained army of 12,000 infantry, 4,000 cavalry, and 100 war elephants, Xanthippus met the Roman army on the open field of Bagradas in 255 BC. The Romans were almost completely massacred. The army that once held 15,000 men was reduced to the 2,000 who managed to escape. Consul Regulus and some of his forces were captured in the battle; Regulus was later executed by the Carthaginians sometime around 250 BC (Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”; “The History of Ancient Rome”; “Marcus Atilius Regulus”).
The 2,000 lucky Romans who managed to escape from Bagradas to Aspis were picked up by a Roman fleet to be taken home. Sadly however, many would never see home again. Off the coast of southern Sicily the fleet got caught in a storm that threw the ships against the rocky coastal waters. Roughly 70% of the fleet and 100,000 men were lost in the storm. This tragic even made the failure in Africa feel even worse for the Romans. Despite this, campaigns on land were faring much better. In 254 BC the fortress city of Panormus fell to the Romans. In 253 BC another Roman fleet was lost in a storm, which pushed the senate to limit the use of costly naval warfare, and focus more on battling on land. This was a wise move, which brought more attention to land campaigns and aided in the capture of the Sicilian cities of Lipara and Thermae in 252 BC, and a siege on the great fortress of Lilybaeum. These successes brought confidence back to the Romans, and they were soon fighting at sea again (“The History of Ancient Rome”).
In 247 BC an able Carthaginian named Hamilcar Barca was given command of forces in Sicily. Hamilcar used guerilla style tactics to raid the coast of Italy and take the mountain fortresses of Mount Hercte and Mount Eryx in Sicily. All attacks against Hamilcar failed, and he was able to end the unending successes of the Roman army. Though successful and very talented, Hamilcar did not have the manpower to completely stop Roman dominance of Sicily. In the war at sea, Rome had managed to come up with funds for a new fleet off 200 ships. This fleet was sent to blockade the ports of Lilybaeum and Drepanum, which were under siege by Rome, but still received supplies from Carthage. The Carthaginian navy was in a state of disrepair due to the massive funds needed to keep it, but was called up in desperation to stop the blockade. Consul Gaius Lutatius Catulus, who commanded the Roman fleet, sought to attack the Carthaginian fleet before it could reach land and deliver supplies. Catulus also feared that the fleet could drop off reinforcements to the forces of Hamilcar Barca, who would use them very effectively against Rome. When the two fleets met at the Aegates Islands in 241 BC, Rome had a clear advantage. The Romans had better trained men with superior equipment, and were using ships copied from a Carthaginian model that was quite fast. The Carthaginian fleet was not using this superior model of ship, while all ships in the Roman fleet were of this model. In the battle, 50 Carthaginian ships were sunk and 70 captured; 10,000 Carthaginians were taken prisoner. Roman losses were 30 ships sunk and 50 badly damaged. With this loss, Carthaginian forces in Sicily were cut off from supply, and had no hope of victory. Hamilcar Barca was told by Carthage to seek peace, though he was willing to continue the war. In 241 BC Gaius Catulus and Hamilcar Barca represented their nations in peace negotiations. In 241 BC after 23 years of war, The First Punic War was over (Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”; “The History of Ancient Rome”).
The terms settled to end The First Punic War were greatly in Rome’s favor. Carthage would return all Roman prisoners, would not make war with Syracuse or any of its allies. King Hiero’s lands would be expanded and would remain an independent ally of Rome. Messana and several other cities would gain allied status with Rome, while the rest of Sicily would belong directly to Rome. Carthage would also pay Rome 3200 talents over a period of ten years. As a result of the costs exacted on Carthage, the nation was unable to pay many of its mercenary forces, which led to a revolt (Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”; “The History of Ancient Rome”).
Hamilcar Barca was sent to the island Sardinia in 238 BC to stop a major mercenary rebellion there. Hamilcar was simply trying to save a territory for Carthage, and meant no harm to Rome, but the Romans were horrified. One of the most able and anti-Roman commanders of the past war was going back into action. A Roman force was sent to occupy Sardinia, and when Carthage protested, Rome declared war. Carthage was in no position to fight another war so soon after their last defeat. The Romans forced Carthage to hand over control of Sardinia and its neighbor Corsica, and pay an additional 1700 talents in compensation. This understandably caused a lot of hate towards Rome in Carthage, who had only attempted to hold onto one of its territories, but as a result had lost it to an old enemy (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”).
Several years after The First Punic War, the nation of Illyria on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea had developed a large navy under King Agron. The king used this navy in acts of piracy against his Greek neighbors. When the king died, his wife Teuta took the throne and increased the level of piracy. By 230 BC Roman trade in the area was beginning to suffer, and Greek merchants were begging them to take action against the pirates. Rome sent two diplomats to speak with Queen Teuta about the matter, and were said to have been treated rudely. Teuta only agreed that her official forces would not harm the Romans, but that she could not be held responsible for pirates. Both sides left the argument angry, so much so that Queen Teuta had one of the diplomats assassinated while on his trip back to Rome. In 229 BC a fleet of 200 Roman ships was deployed against Illyria, while several legions traveled there by land. Several towns were taken, and many pirate ships destroyed. In 228 BC Queen Teuta was forced to sue for peace. In the peace agreement, Illyria would give up 120 miles of land along its coast and pay tribute. Restrictions were also place on the movements of the Illyrian navy. As a result of this, many Greek cities along the western coast were incredibly grateful to Rome. Though most of Greece was happy with Rome’s actions, Illyria’s ally Macedonia was very angry. The First Illyrian War may have been a small engagement, but it would have an impact on the future that no one could have foreseen at the time (“The History of Ancient Rome”).
In 225 BC an army of several Gallic tribes crossed into Roman land in Etruria. This would be the last Gallic invasion into Italy. The Gallic army consisted of approximately 50,000 infantry, and 20,000 cavalry; Rome was not afraid however. An army of 130,000 Romans was easily raised. At the Battle of Telamon the Gauls were caught between two Roman armies, and annihilated. The Gallic death toll was around 40,000 men, with 10,000 taken prisoner. After this incident, the Romans felt inclined to punish the Gauls. Over a period of two years, three successful campaigns brought all of northern Italy under Roman control, including the city of Mediolanum (modern Milan) (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”).
In 238 BC, just three years after its defeat in The First Punic War, Carthage began campaigning in Spain. Hamilcar Barca led the Carthaginian armies with great success. When Hamilcar died, his son-in-law Hasdrubal the Elder took over operations in Spain. One of Hasdrubal’s greatest accomplishments was the founding of the prosperous coastal city of Carthago Nova. When Rome questioned the peaceful intentions of the Carthaginians in 231 BC, Hamilcar (who was alive at the time) explained that in order to pay tribute to Rome, Carthage needed a new source of income. This income was furnished by the campaigns in Spain, and its productive mines. Despite assurances by the Carthaginians, in 226 BC the Romans convinced Hasdrubal to agree to limit expansion to the area south of the river Ebro. In 223 BC Rome made the disasterous move of allying with the town of Saguntum, which was on the Carthaginian side of the river Ebro (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”; Durant 48).
In 221 BC Hasdrubal the Elder was assassinated; so Hannibal Barca, the son of Hamilcar Barca, took over Carthaginian operations in Spain. From a young age Hannibal had been taught by his father to hate Rome, and these teachings were very effective. When a war erupted between Saguntum and a Carthaginian ally, the Turboletae tribe, Rome felt obligated to aid her ally. This intervention in the war led to small losses among the Turboletae, which eventually gave Hannibal cause to lay siege to Saguntum in 219 BC. Rome demanded the surrender of Hannibal, but Carthage tried to explain how the Roman alliance with Saguntum had been at conflict with their treaty in 226 BC. The chief envoy of the Romans, Quintus Fabius Maximus, was not willing to negotiate (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”; “The History of Ancient Rome”). It’s said that Fabius pulled the folds of his toga into his hands and said, "’we bring you peace and war. Take which you will.' Scarcely had he spoken when the answer no less proudly rang out: 'Whichever you please, we do not care.' Fabius let the gathered folds fall, and cried: 'We give you war'" (“The History of Ancient Rome”).
In 218 BC Hannibal crossed the river Ebro with nearly 60,000 troops, including about 38 war elephants. Hannibal traveled through northern Spain, and into Gaul where he spent fifteen days crossing the cold and rugged Alps. When Hannibal emerged from the Alps into Italy his army had lost over half its size, and most of his war elephants were dead. Despite his losses, the speed at which Hannibal was able to travel by foot from Spain to Italy stands as an amazing achievement. Once Across the Alps, Hannibal met the army of Publius Scipio at the Ticinus River. The Roman army of 40,000 received heavy losses from Hannibal’s Numidian calvary, and Scipio had to be rescued from the field by his son after receiving a severe wound. The Romans were easily swept aside by Hannibal’s more experienced troops. Though the Battle of Ticinus is considered to have been a relatively small battle, news of Hannibal’s victory spread through the neighboring Gallic tribes, bringing many new warriors to Hannibal’s cause (“Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”; “Hannibal Barca”).
After the Battle of Ticinus the remnants of Publius Scipio’s army joined with that of consul Sempronius Longus. On the plain west of the River Trebia Hannibal scouted the area as a potential battlefield. Before the battle Hanninbal left 2,000 men commanded by his brother Mago hiding either in a nearby gully or in the bushes around the bend of the river. The next day Hannibal sent some of his Numidian cavalry to goad Longus into an attack. This provocation was successful in drawing the Romans across the freezing river right into Hannibal’s army, which was warm and rested unlike the Romans. First, the Roman skirmishers (velites) advanced and were able to take out the last of Hannibal’s remaining elephants, but were quickly forced back. The Roman cavalry fared poorly as well, only the infantry managed to hold itself together for long. Mago’s hidden 2,000 troops, the Carthaginian cavalry, and skirmishers circled the Romans and eventually crushed them. Only 10,000 legionaries of the original 40,000 managed to escape from the battlefield (Rickard, J; “Illustrated History of the Roman Empire”; “The History of Ancient Rome”).
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